Reversal Theory

Reversal Theory: The Structure of Motivation

January 30, 2012 by robertsrobson 2 Comments

Building on my suggestion of Reversal Theory as an integrative theory for change practitioners, I’ve introduce the central tenets of the theory and will now set out the structure of motivation that influences our experience of the world and, therefore, our response to change.

Our emotional experience and behaviour is influenced by our motivational state and related variables (later). Think of these as lenses by which we see the world.

8 States, 4 Pairs or ‘Domains’

There are eight motivational states (show in the table below), organised into 4 oppositional pairs. One of these, and only one, state in each pair is always active. So we are always in 4 states from the 8, but these combinations are constantly changing. In that sense, our lives are like a dashboard of on/off switches.

Each of the states links to a core value or need, which is our link to culture, and indeed each brings something different in terms of performance or ‘contribution’ to the organisation (Apter International, 2003?) as well as responses to change. Aware that this is one of the things that sets this framework apart from most psychological theories at play in change today, I will follow up with a post specifically on the contributions and responses to change.

Finally, the oppositional pairs link to a common motivational theme or ‘domain’.

So what are these states? They are summarised in the table below (adapted from Apter International, 2007), and I will expand on each in further posts.

State	Domain	Concerned with (core value/need)	Characteristics
Playful	Means & Ends	Enjoyment, fun	Sees actions as valuable for their own sake; In the moment, spontaneous, risk taking, sensation-seeking
Serious	Means & Ends	Progress, achievement	Actions valuable if leading to a desired goal / outcome; Future focused, sensible, cautious, risk averse
Conforming	Rules	Fitting in, belonging	Sees rules as supportive; compliant, conventional, accepting, traditional
Rebellious	Rules	Freedom, independence	Sees rules as restrictive; challenging, defiant, unconventional, stands out from crowd, mischievous
Mastery	Transactions	Power & control	Seeks to gain power or control; Toughness, competitiveness, seeks status, competence
Sympathy	Transactions	Affection, relationships	Seeks to develop personal relationships; Affectionate, friendly, caring or being cared for, senstive
Self-Oriented	Relationships	For yourself, individualism	Experience is in terms of impact on self; selfish, takes personal responsibility
Other-Oriented	Relationships	For others, collectivism	Experience is in terms of impact on others; team working, unselfish, giving, modest

As you might imagine, these states can have significant implications for individual organisational change and performance. All states have their benefits and their potential drawbacks. The challenge for a change manager is to help people to a) match their state to the situation, b) be more ‘skillful’ in their current state (e.g. setting effective goals in the serious state) or c) adapt methods of communication and engagement to peoples’ states (the alternative to this in dealing with large audiences is being able to talk to all eight states – something that I will come back to).

Reference

Apter Motivational Style Profile: Consultant Guide, 2007, Apter International

Filed Under: Business Psychology, Reversal Theory in Business Tagged With: behaviour, change, emotion, experience, motivation, needs, Reversal Theory, states, structure, values

Introduction to Reversal Theory

January 7, 2012 by robertsrobson 6 Comments

Having made the argument for using Reversal Theory as an integrative theory for change management, this post introduces the theory, it’s history and it’s central tenets.

What is Reversal Theory?

Reversal Theory is a ‘general theory’ of human experience that is based around motivation, or specifically how people experience motivation. A general theory attempts not to explain human experience in parts (for example motivation, confidence, emotions), but as a whole.

Where does Reversal Theory come from?

Rather than being dreamt up in a business school, the initial studies that led to the development of Reversal Theory, by Dr. Ken Smith, and Dr. Michael Apter, a British psychiatrist and psychologist pairing, were done into truancy among school children in the 70′s.

At first it appeared that there were different types of children that skipped school. These were either children who were avoiding anxiety experienced at school, or those who wanted the fun and excitement of playing truant. One behaviour, two types of children. This is exactly what trait psychology would suggest.

With closer study, however, the researchers observed the ‘nervous’ children having fun and being excited in other situations, and those that seemed to seek excitement being anxious in other situations. In other words, the behaviour seemed to be better explained by states than traits. This started the development of the basic structure of Reversal Theory, and to the central observations of the theory.

Central Insights of Reversal Theory

Not only do individuals experience the world in different ways in different situations, but they also experience the same situation differently at different times. In other words, we are inherently inconsistent! Indeed, this inconsistency is not only inherent but necessary for fulfilment as it reflects a variety of psychological needs that we all have.

You cannot determine the motivations for behaviour simply by observation, and indeed behaviour is complex and often paradoxical. You may have found yourself shouting at your children because you care about them!

For the change professional or psychologist, this presents two major implications:

1) If people are inconsistent, they are also changeable. So often we encounter trait explanations of behaviour that seem to suggest that people are fixed in their ways and change is difficult. So for those of us in change, it provides an optimistic perspecitive.

2) Observation of behaviour is not the best indicator of intentions or motivations. Humans tend to be pretty good readers of behaviour, as we pick up on many different cues, but we often get it wrong. Only by asking can we actually infer motivations accurately. Of course, effective change managers already know that they have to talk to and listen to stakeholders!

By applying Reversal Theory, which maps motivations with emotional experience, we can better understand where people are coming from – and where we might want to get them. This requires taking the next step, which is to understand the structure of motivation in Reversal Theory (my next post).

Filed Under: Business Psychology, Reversal Theory in Business Tagged With: Apter, behaviour, central insights, emotions, experience, introduction, motivation, Reversal Theory, structure

Reversal Theory as an Integrative Change Management Theory

December 26, 2011 by robertsrobson 4 Comments

Over the last 10 years I’ve used Reversal Theory (e.g Apter, 2001) in my practice as a sport psychologist, organizational development consultant and change manager. One of the things that I’d like to do with this blog is to develop a body of content that describes Reversal Theory as an integrative theory for change practitioners that will provide a common language and framework for dealing with individual

Apter's Motivational Styles change, team interventions, change leadership, organizational and cultural change.

Reversal Theory is a general psychological theory that makes a connection betweenvalues, motivational states and emotions. It has been developed over more than 30 years and has been researched and applied in a wide range of domains including management and leadership, psychotherapy and counseling, sports and exercise, health and religion.

The Value of Reversal Theory in Change Management

The practical value of Reversal Theory in change management is based on the following observations:

Individuals are operating in a more complex and dynamic organizational setting than ever before, and change is only increasing in pace
Management is increasingly focused on managing conflicting ideas or dilemmas (grey areas, rather than black and white)
Leadership is increasingly recognized as requiring the creation of the right conditions (or climate) for performance
Different organizations, with different strategic ambitions and market conditions require very different capabilities, which in turn demand very different mindsets and behaviours from employees
Individuals, including leaders, can perform exceptionally in one organization (or set of conditions) yet appear quite ordinary in others

What’s Different About Reversal Theory?

Reversal Theory helps us to understand these kinds of complexities in ways that many of the psychological theories used in change management do not, because:

As a state based theory, it helps us to conceive of people as more changeable and less consistent than trait theories
As a general theory it can explain a wide range of phenomena, creating a common language rather than having a patchwork quilt of unrelated theories to work with
However, rather than being in competition with other frameworks, particularly in individual change, it can be used as a diagnostic ‘layer’ with cognitive, behavioural or humanistic interventions
It explains why certain situations appear to warrant opposing or conflicting, even paradoxical, explanations
It provides a map of motivations and emotional experience, which helps us to find ways to engage with people in more precise and compelling ways
It links the internal world of the individual to team dynamics, leadership (climate), and to organizational culture

Reversal Theory in Business and Change Management

Although Reversal Theory has been widely empirically researched, most of its use in the business world has been by practitioners behind the screen of client confidentiality. Apter Development / Apter International, for whom I used to work, has been one of the main users of the theory in Organisational Development, using it as the basis of their work in leadership and management development and employee research. Indeed although, Steve Carter outlined a new model of change agency / change leadership based on Reversal Theory (that I will refer to later) I will be attempting to weave together a wider range of aspects of change management using Reversal Theory, and indeed propose a number of ways in which existing frameworks can be further enhanced by the theory such as (to be further developed):

Creating individual change
Facilitating team change
Developing Change leadership
Understanding organisational culture
Integrating RT with models of organisational change
Assessing change readiness

In doing so, I’d appreciate any feedback either through comments, email or twitter (@robertsrobson).

Now, if you’ve come this far, I’m sure that you’ll be eager to learn what Reversal Theory actually is, so I’d better get writing!

References

M.J. Apter (Ed.) (2001). Motivational Styles in Everyday Life: A Guide to Reversal Theory. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association Press (*This is the ‘bible’ of RT research up to 2001*)

S. Carter (2003). Change is not what it used to be. Understanding the role of the change agent. Apter International Ltd (now Apter Development)

Introduction to Reversal Theory

Filed Under: Change Management, Reversal Theory in Business Tagged With: change, climate, complexity, culture, emotion, engagement, leadership, motivation, psychology, Reversal Theory

Winning Hearts and Minds

September 21, 2011 by robertsrobson 3 Comments

In any change there are many reasons why people might feel good or bad about what’s going on, and as change managers if we can find the right ‘buttons’ we can press them. That’s really what we mean by winning hearts and minds.

“What’s in it for me?” (or WIIFM?) is a valid question but without a solid framework for understanding employees’ motivational and emotional world, the answers will tend to be limited to the obvious, more rational ones. Minds, more than hearts.

Image Credit: JohnLeskodotbiz

Consider the following hypothetical WIIFMs:

The sense of achievement from seeing the change through
The excitement and sense of adventure of doing something new
A sense of belonging from being part of a new organisation
A chance to break from the bureaucracy and make more decisions
The opportunity to learn and develop my career
Feeling like the organisation caters more for me and my needs
The change to build a more competitive business
The opportunity to do something for the greater good

Whether you recognise these as valid reasons for a particular change or not, the important point is that they are motivationally different as they reflect the eight motivational states or ‘lenses’ through which we can see change that are provided by Reversal Theory (Apter). These states (and corresponding values are):

Serious (Achievement)
Playful (Enjoyment)
Conforming (Fitting In)
Rebellious (Freedom)
Self-Oriented Mastery (Personal Power)
Self-Oriented Sympathy (Cared for)
Other-Oriented Mastery (Support for Others)
Other-Oriented Sympathy (Care for others)

If, in future, you are trying to understand the WIIFM of people in your organisation, see if you can put on the lenses above and see eight different reasons why they might embrace change!

Filed Under: Change Management Tagged With: change, emotion, hearts and minds, motivation, psychology, Reversal Theory, WIIFM

Why People Can Change

September 7, 2011 by robertsrobson 1 Comment

I’ve been reading Why People Don’t Change on the BNET business blog and found myself agreeing with a lot of what Steve Tobak wrote:

Behavioural or other psychological profiles tend not to create a great deal of behaviour change
This can be true for people that have gone on to make real change at other times in their lives
However, having access to the information provided by the profiles (which you provided in the first place) can be useful (for example in helping groups understand each other a little better)
But mechanisms (some of which may be more pleasurable, such as team dinners) can serve much the same purpose

Steve then described how personal crises led him to the self-discovery and change, and suggests that these crises motivate change.

Here’s where I start to disagree.

He argues that profiles are superficial whereas the mind is complicated, like an onion.

State versus Trait Psychology

Actually, I still agree. But where I differ is that the reason that I’ve never been a huge user or fan of profiling, is that I’ve been steeped, through my background and training in sport psychology, in state psychology. Most profiles are based on traits, or ‘behavioural preferences’ which sound a lot like traits. Traits, by definition, are relatively unchanging over time. In a rapidly changing world, I find that a bit problematic and outdated.

It’s not profiling, per se, that’s the problem, but the psychology behind them.

Reversal Theory (Motivational States)

One theory that I’ve found incredibly useful at stripping back the layers of people’s experience (and helping them put them back together) is Reversal Theory. Michael Apter’s general theory is based around the relationship between motivational states (and related values) and emotions. For the practitioner it offers a kind of a map between the two. This provides two routes into a problem, or solution, and two is better than one. It also begins to address the argument that the mind is like an onion. Learning Reversal Theory, I have said and hear over the years, is also like peeling an onion. You can learn the basis structure of motivational states, or go further and learn the emotional structure, and further still into the realm of paradoxical behaviour.

More Effective Profiling

Reversal Theory also provides it’s own Profiling Tool (The Apter Motivational Style Profile, or AMSP). In all honesty, a profile is a snapshot, rather a flat and blunt portrayal of your mind, whatever it is based on. However, the real power of the AMSP is that you if you use it in conjunction with coaching skills and a solid understanding of the theory, you have genuine power to create behaviour change.

Part of this power lies in the fact that the profile seems to resonate with people (as many do), the other is that the Reversal Theory starts from the position that we are all inconsistent; spending time (however much or little) in all states and if we understand existing or potential triggers we can choose to spend more or less in them (and becoming more adept when there); and therefore changeable. People get that. They buy into it as a process. They believe it.

This helps to shortcut the need to go through a crisis and an epiphany in order to learn, and change. It doesn’t, however, mean that it is easy!

Filed Under: Change Management Tagged With: change, profiling, psychology, Reversal Theory

On Change Managers and Change Junkies

August 30, 2011 by robertsrobson 1 Comment

It’s no surprise that, as a Change Manager, I’m attracted to change and so, as I look forward to my next assignment I’m reminded that a Change Manager can’t just be a ‘change junkie’ and has to see through the old before taking on the new.

It’s easy to assume that the best Change Managers, and indeed change agents, should be change junkies. However, while such people thrive on the excitement of new challenges and opportunities, their weakness can be in delivering the end product. I have to admit that it’s something I’ve learned to be conscious of.

An interesting tool for developing change managers and agents is the Apter Change Agent Profile. It is based on the notion that change managers have to have a flexible mindset and pull on different ‘strands’ at any point in a change programme (rather than moving through a linear process) in order to be successful.

Apter Change Agent Profile - Strands

These strands require different motivational styles (a core element of the underlying framework, Reversal Theory), or values, as well as skills:

Initiation: Creating initial impetus (or ‘renewing’ the change), requiring energy, creativity and a challenging mindset

Organisation: Looking to the future, creating plans and structures required to underpin delivery of the change

Implementation: Getting the job done, working through issues and focusing on delivery

Impact: Paying attention to the impact of the change upon the organisation and its people, focusing on hearts and minds

All of these strands are important to the successful delivery of change and, according to the approach, a Change Manager should be aware of their strengths and potential weaknesses as they move through change.

The good news, however, is that the approach also fundamentally asserts that none of us is fixed – this is not about ‘traits’ but ‘states’ – and can all learn to access the styles required to manage each strand.

Filed Under: Leadership Tagged With: Apter, Change Leadership, Development, Reversal Theory, Tools

Reversal Theory: The Structure of Motivation

8 States, 4 Pairs or ‘Domains’

Introduction to Reversal Theory

What is Reversal Theory?

Where does Reversal Theory come from?

Central Insights of Reversal Theory

Reversal Theory as an Integrative Change Management Theory

The Value of Reversal Theory in Change Management

What’s Different About Reversal Theory?

Reversal Theory in Business and Change Management

Winning Hearts and Minds

Why People Can Change

State versus Trait Psychology

On Change Managers and Change Junkies

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